VALUES AND ETHICS IN THE ISLAMIC LAW OF LABOUR
Badmus N. O. Abdul Azeez
ABSTRACT
Contract of Labour in human life is as old as the existence of human community. The dispute between the employers and their employees led to evolution of guidelines that could protect the interest of either party. Any human enactment that does not address the spirit of contract which includes-values and ethics is incapable of removing the injustice that may arise in labour contracts as the stronger party has the propensity to nullify concession and rights in the agreement reached with the weak participant. The absence of duration and input in labour contracts leads to corruption in both private and public sectors. This phenomenon is observable in employer-employee relationships resulting in oppression, mischief and human suffering. This paper addresses ethical dimensions in labour services from the Islamic perspective especially as embedded in ljārah, al- Musāqāt, al-Khidmah, ar-Riqq, and al-Muzārah. The paper proposes educational strategies for guaranteeing mutual and cordial labour relationships.
Key Words: Ethics, Islamic Law, Labour, Education, Entrepreneurship.
Introduction
Ethics is a general pattern or way of life, a set of rules of conduct or moral code, an inquiry about life and rules of conduct. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, (2001). The Qur’an is a repository of rules of conduct meant to govern all facets of life. While the Qur’an has little by way of categorical submissions on what philosophers call philosophical or meta-ethics, nonetheless it is possible to infer from the Qur’ānic texts on certain meta-ethical presuppositions and methods. The Qur’an assumes that humans are guided to demonstrate good conduct but often fail to follow it and since humans are conversant with what constitute goodness, they know why goodness is wholesome. The quality of being good has the utility of guaranteeing success and reward, but nothing suggests that goodness remains good for some reasons extrinsic to itself. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, (2001).
The emphasis of the Qur’an on teaching the notions of virtue and vice should not obscure the novel features of human acts. It establishes a justification for virtuous human acts and in the process identify individual and collective roles in ensuring that of all persons are equitably treated the social status notwithstanding. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, (2001). The Qur’an should be seen as revolutionary not only in its content but also in its justification of certain human behaviours. It also provides new rules and moralities that are the very purpose of human existence. The focus here is on some passages of the Qur’an and Hadith discussing virtuous conduct toward human beings in the area of contract of service delivery and labour services in its micro and probably macro dimensions.
The Concept of Contract
Contract, whether unilateral or bilateral is an agreement or promise to do or not to do a thing or a set of things; it is an alliance, a relationship of solidarity and support to him who incurred the debt dictate, and let him observe his duty to God his Lord, and diminish not thereof.
But if he who owes the debt is of low understanding, or weak, or unable himself to dictate, then let the guardian of his interests dictate in [terms of] equity. And call to witness, from among your men, two witnesses. And if two men be not [available] then one man and two women, of such as you approve as witnesses, so that if one [woman] errs [through forgetfulness], the other will remember. And the witnesses shall not refuse when they are summoned. Be not averse to writing down [the contract] whether it be small or great, with [record of the term thereof. That is more equitable in the sight of God and surer for testimony, and the best way of avoiding doubt between you; save only in the case when it is actual merchandise which you transfer among yourselves from hand to hand. In that case, it is no sin for you if you do not write it down. And have witnesses when you sell one to another, and let no harm be done to scribe or witness. If you do them harm, lo! It is a sin in you. Q: 2:282.
Despite the relative detail of this verse and the clarity of the prescription to write down contracts, the Qur’an, though recognized the validity of written instruments does not elaborate on a general, comprehensive theory of contracts and obligations. For a contract to be valid, it is required that the contractual instrument be attested to by witnesses. Thus it is by virtue of testimonial attestation that an instrument acquires validity. In classical and medieval Islamic law, several types of contracts were recognized. The most common source of contractual obligations was primarily the caqd in matters of pecuniary transactions. More specifically, the contract of sale formed not only the archetype of contractual theory but also constituted the core of legal obligations. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, (2001) Commutative and other types of contracts stand on their own though they are nonetheless constructed on the contractual model of sale which otherwise includes barter and exchange. Being bilateral, a contract requires offer (ījāb) and acceptance (qabūl), both taking place in the same session in the presence and consent of the contracting parties. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, (2001) It was generally required that offer and acceptance be expressly stated although the Mālikī school does recognize implied offer and acceptance in some contracts. The Qur’an does not explicitly enjoin express offer and acceptance but it does acknowledge that the basis of contractual validity is mutual assent Q: 4:29.
Islamic law recognizes the right to rescission which is a unilateral right to cancel or ratify any type of contract. The either parties has the right to rescind the contract at the time when he inspects the object, and the right to rescission arises if there is a defect in the object upon which the contract is made. Deficiency is taken to be a cause for the reduction of the value and thus the price of an object and reduction in price upsets the terms of the contract. This right, however, lapses if not exercised within a certain time limitation. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. (2001).
The Concept of Value
Value is interchangeably used in two perspectives: First, it is used to refer to specific evaluation of any object. The second perspective refers to the criteria or standards in terms of which evaluations are made. Simply, “values may thus refer to interests, likes, preferences, duties, moral obligations, desires, wants, needs, aversions and attractions…” H. K. Sherwānī, (1970) The Arabic term (Qiyam) is synonymous to value. It implies estimation of a man’s position or status or worthiness in the eyes of other men. D. Otobo, (2005) and Oxford Word Power, 6th impression, 2001,
In Islam, the terms (Khuluq) and (Adab) are terms interchangeably used to imply ethics. Al-Jazāiri sees ethics as: “a well-established constitution in the soul through which the voluntary and optional actions like good and wicked deeds are done.”M.K. Ahmad, (1972) Also Cowan, used the word to describe a rule of conduct or rules of decorum. J.M. Cowan, (1976) Thus the role of ethics in management is to ensure integrity, promote responsibility towards integrity, assure responsibility towards employers/employees relationship and to protect both parties from any potential legal ramifications that might arise from unethical action. A. al-Jazāirī, (2007)
The General Concept of Labour
Labour or employment is called al-ljārah. It literally connotes al-Ithābah meaning ‘remuneration’. al-ljārah is rooted from the word al-Ajru which is synonymous to (al- Awdu) meaning to give in exchange in lieu of compensation or recompense.’ The following Qur’anic verse sheds more light on this meaning in relation to labour or industrial relation in the Qur’anic perspective.(Al-Hikmah Journal of Islamic Studies 2010). Allah revealed it in the statement of Musa: “if you had wished, surely, you could have taken wages for it”. (Q:18:77).
Labour of al-Ijārah is a bond on legally permissible benefits on an assignment for a specified duration. It is a specified assignment undertaken for a specified stipend. E.A. Elias and E. D. Elias, (1969) In essence, labour is a contract that perpetually exists in the lives of mankind in various public lives. It is a daily affair in one’s life. Hence it was encapsulated in legally stipulated in order to enhance accuracy in transaction, preserve public utility and extinct harm.
The Marxists in their attempt to define labour excluded motherhood and domestic labour. To them, women labour is assigned to the natural and hence is not counted as labour, likewise the domestic labour performed exclusively by women. Accordingly, all labour should be identified as a paid or wage labour, if it is not paid, it is not labour.al-Fawzān, (nd) One may say categorically that the labour of a mother in this sense is not without reward which is the happiness the offspring may put in her heart for life.
Contractual Labour in the Qur’an and Sunnah
The Qur’an spells out a fundamental condition for fruitful engagement in contractual relationship. The qualifications are prowess and trustworthiness. Thus the Qur’an states: “…The best of men for you to hire is the strong and. trustworthy” (Q:28:26). Prowess implies physical ability to discharge duty assigned while trustworthiness entails reliability and confidence in the personality assigned to a job. Sayyid Qutb (1979) summarily described the two qualities as al-Qawiyy meaning ‘strong in discharging responsibilities, trustworthy in preserving wealth. S. Qutb, (1979). Al-Sacdi contends that strength or al–Quwwah is the ability to undertake the assigned job and trust al–Amānah is devoid of dishonesty in the assigned job. These two qualities are prerequisites for whoever may wish to engage someone on a payable labour, the absence of either the qualities nullifies the engagement. The acquisition of the two qualities makes an engagement a complete one. A.N. al- Sacdī, (1416 AH). the following verse refers to the component of contractual relation in labour services:
I intend to wed one of these two daughters of mine to you, on condition that you serve me for eight years; but if you complete ten years, it will be (a favour ) from you. But I intend not to put you under a difficult, If Allah wills, you will find me one of the righteous ones” (Q:28:27).
A mutual contract was undertaken between prophets Shuaib and Musa (AS). The object of the contract was rearing of flocks for a fixed or stipulated duration of eight years. However a bonus of additional two years duration was suggested. The crux of this contractual labour relation could be seen in the light of the followings:
- Stipulation of duration of the engagement, such as eight years.
- Absence of unnecessary hardship
- Righteousness
It is important to note that the additional two years that was willingly and joyfully rounded up to make ten years of engagement in the contract was clearly optional”. It was not legally binding on the employee (Musa). Al– Jazāirī described such action as an act of goodness and generosity. In a harmonious contractual relation such generous act exists reciprocally. At times, the employee consciously works beyond the stipulated time with or without request from the other party without claiming wage. A similar kind gesture is also extended by an employer who gives the worker at the end of the day something extra. This type of gesture arises from good working relationship and job satisfaction between employer and employee (A.J. al-Jazāirī).
The Qur’an once again relates another instance about labour relation in the case of a divorced lactating woman who could negotiate hiring her to breast feed her child. Allāh states: “Then if they give suck for the children for you, give them their due payment and let each of you accept the advice of each other in just ways” (Q:65:6).
Al- Jazāirī and al-Sacdi emphasize on cordiality between parents in terms of due payment for the breastfeeding mother. A.J. al-Jazairī.a1-Sacdi adds that ignorance of such contractual agreement gives room for harm and evil. This circumstance is likely to be encountered by the breastfeeding mother and also the baby who may be malnourished. He opines that the essence of mutuality between the parents is that it creates avenue for acquiring benefits and utility. These provisions are all beneficial to the separated couples and the innocent baby. A.N. Al- Sacdī, (1416AH)
The following traditions elaborate the Islamic values and ethics in labour contractual engagements. The Prophet says that “Allah did not send any Prophet but he shepherded sheep. His companions asked him, did you do the same? The Prophet replied: Yes, I reared the sheep of the people of Makkah for some Qīrāt.”A.N. al-Sacdī, (1416AH).
The Prophet (SAW) reportedly drew a parable between Jews and Christians on one hand and the Muslims on the other. He said: This similitude is like a man who employed the services of three groups of people. The first group that worked till midday was paid one Qīrāt. The second group that worked up to cAsr was paid one Qīrāt also, while the third group who worked from cAsr to sunset was paid two Qīrāts. The first-two groups felt offended for being paid one Qīrāt each against the third group who was paid two Qīrāts. M. M. Khān, (nd).
It is observed here that the labourers were paid promptly, based on the conditions attached to the agreement reached with each of them as regards the time, duration and wages, the labourers also must have fulfilled the condition of ability to execute the job. In this way, cause for dispute, injustice and social disharmony cannot arise. The Prophet has further thrown light to the clue that leads to successful labour relation when he submitted that “Muslims should abide by their agreed conditions “M.M. Khān, (nd) This could be described as an ethical side of any labour relation; it earns each or both parties respect by adhering to working conditions mutually agreed upon before the service was rendered.
Aishah narrated that Allah’s Apostle and Abubakr hired a man from the tribe of Banu Ad-Di as an expert guide. He was a pagan from the Quraysh. The Prophet and Abubakr gave him their riding camels and took a promise from him to bring back their riding camels in the morning of the third day to the cave of Thaur, clearly spelt out duration was agreed upon which the employee duly adhered to without break enhance ethics, values and dedication to service, the wage ought to be such that one could value, compare to the service rendered. Sequel to this, the Prophet always appeals to masters of slaves to reduce the taxes levied on their slaves, after earning some wages for labour undertaken elsewhere. M.M. Khān, (nd).
In the bid to instil justice and fairness in ethical service relation, Ibn Umar narrated that the Prophet instructed: “give the labourer his stipend before his sweat dries” M. M. Khān, (nd) Also, the Prophet condemns some employers’ attitude of denying workers their stipends when he declared that he will be an opponent to three people on the day of Resurrection one of which is an employer who benefits from a labourer but denies him payment for his labour.”. S. M. Y. Abū Azīz, (nd). In explaining this Hadith, al-Amir as-Sanācnī stated that there is every evidence that would warrant Allah’s wrath over such people. M.M. Khān, (nd) Employing a labourer and refusing to pay him after delivering his services fully, delay in payment and disparity in the agreed wages are attitudes that warrant removal of blessing and Allah’s wrath on the part of the employer.
In another event a companion performed Ruqyah (Incantation) for a cure of scorpion bite. The companion cured the victim of the scorpion bite. He was paid for his service which was certain number of goats, the Prophet acknowledged by taking some portion of such remuneration. M. M. Khan, (nd) In this scenario, it can be inferred that before undertaking any engagement, the condition governing such service ought to be explicitly stated and immediate payment for such service effected.
Appraising the Islamic Contract of Labour Services
Most of the Muslim Jurists including Ibn Rushd, Ibn Munzir, Ibn Taimiyyah, al-Jazāirī, Ismā’ī1 and’ al-Fauzân are of the view that Ijārah is permissible in Sharicah. According to al-Fauzān, Ijārah is imperative because of inherent needs within the human societies. Accordingly, the employer and the employee are both in need of each other, hence both of them are of equal status. M.M. Khān, (nd). The jurists equally agreed on the permissibility of employment under Sharicah, they concur that the earning of the labourer must also be of value to him. Al-Jazâiri, for instance, presented some evidences justifying the legality of ljärah employment, which include the following examples:
- The captives of the battle of Badr were engaged to teach the Muslims literacy skills to earn their freedom.
- Contractual agreement between Musa and the father of the two ladies that Musa assisted.
- Worthiness of the object of contract to its owner, and rewards that is valuable to the employee.
Ibn Taimiyyah classified ljārah into two namely: general and specific ljārah, in general terms, it means exchange of a value for a service rendered irrespective of the nature of the service. In terms of specific labour, the nature of the service and the condition governing such service (bond) are clearly spelt out. Similarly, the payment of such service must be known. Then he attributed this concept to the Jurists of the later generation. He added that for such payment to be valuable and legitimate, the wages should not be deceptive. Ibn Taymiyyah, (1983).
According to Imams Shāficī, the content of the contract of labour service must include the wage and similar opinion is also reported from Imam Mālik. Ibn Rushd, (nd). It is a common condition that the labourer knows the nature and period of his service. During stipulated time; he has no right to engage other tasks besides that which the second party assigned to him. The time spent on other tasks is calculated against him and deducted from his/her wages except he has a reasonable excuse. There is dispute amongst the jurists whether he should be penalized if for unsatisfactory performance or destruction of property but certainly he is liable to sanction in case of Breach of contract attracts negligence. Ibn Rushd sanction on either party unless there is a tenable reason/s such as destruction of the item of ljārah, death, or disability of either party. But in this condition, the labourer has right to the wages of the part of the period he worked. Ash-Shawkani M. A. M., (2003).
The service gives the labourer: the discretion to be engaged in other jobs that may earn him additional income as long as the time for the execution is outside that stipulated in the earlier contract and even if it may be at the detriment of the owner of the first service, such as. al-Masta’jir.
The conditions stipulated above are also applicable to other areas of labour services such as then Sharicah provisions on al-Masaqāt (sharecropping), al– Khidma (service), al–Ubūdiyyah or Ar-Riqq (slavery), al- Muzārach (temporary sharecropping). In the case of al- Muzārach or temporary sharecropping, two people or more are involved, the owner of the land and the one who cultivates it; the latter is referred to as al-Muzārach and resembles labourer but the difference between this person and an ordinary labourer is that the landlord has made agreement with him on the percentage from a year produce instead of monetary wage.
According to Sayyid Sabiq, the parties may even reach an agreement on a certain amount of money. But this opinion could be defeated as we find out that it would become hiring or Ijārah if money is involved and it may lead to cheating on the part of the landlord or the Muzārach, which may do away with the ethics and values of the contract of labour that are considered as the main spirit of the two concepts under discussion. Sayyid Sabiq, (2004), Masāqāt or sharecropping is a contract over the lease of a plantation for a limited time of one crop period or hiring the service of another person for the purpose of irrigation and total caring of the fruit trees for a short period of time for a determined portion of the fruit or crop.lbn Rushd.
This type of labour is based on the Hadith reported that “the Prophet employed the people of Khaibar on a half of the land produce, fruit or grain” reported by Muslim. The Ansār in Medina also suggested that they should divide their properties, half for the Muhājirūn and half for themselves but the Prophet disapproved the view. So they agreed that the Muhājirūn look after the Ansār’s plantation then they share the produce between themselves at the ratio of 50% (Sahih Bukhārī chapter 39 hadith 518).
According to Sayyid Sabiq, it is the consensus of the companions and their successors that this type of service is allowed in Sharīach. The conditions of the validity of this type of service include offer and acceptance, the type and qualities of crops must be ascertained, the period of service, entering into the agreement shortly before crop maturity and specifying the quantity of harvest due to the labourer. Ibn Rushd. According to Maliki School of Law, this type of service contract is applicable to any type of plantation so long as the owner is unable to take care of it by himself. al-Shawkāni M.A.M (2003) The duties of the labourer include watering, weeding and general care of the plantation while the owner provides water and other facilities. Sayyid Sabiq.
If for any reason, the labourer is unable to continue with the service or has decided to break the contract, he or his heir deserves the wage of what he had rendered in service, a specific portion of the fruit or crop based on the period of the service rendered. The death of either parties does not mean the termination of the service as the heirs of either parties could continue with the agreement otherwise the labourer or his heir deserves the wage or a specific portion of the produce according to the service rendered (Sayyid Sabiq).
The duty of the labourer here may continue after the harvest as it sometimes include extracting of oil out of the palm seed and the share of the labourer and that of the owner of plantation would be determined from the oil extracted except for the palm tree plantation, the share of the labourer on other crops or plantation is given in cash.
Al-Jacl is another service in Sharīach that requires a labourer or al-majcūlu lahu and the principal or al-jācil. For instance, when something lost and the owner requests a search for it and stipulates a price or reward for the finder, this is regarded as a service. This is applied to any service where one is not sure whether such service would be fulfilled such as curing a sick person on pay, causing one to memorize the Qur’an, digging a well and teaching someone a subject until he or she passes a given examination with the promise of a price or wage when the service is rendered and target or aim is achieved, otherwise the labourer deserves no reward or pay. Sayyid Sabiq.
Some scholars do not allow this type of service because the result is not known and they opine that even if the condition is fulfilled from the rendered, the labourer deserves no pay or reward unless the principal feels to do so. The majority of the jurists approve it based on the meaning of Q12:72 and Q5:1
قَالُواْ نَفۡقِدُ صُوَاعَ ٱلۡمَلِكِ وَلِمَن جَآءَ بِهِۦ حِمۡلُ بَعِيرٖ وَأَنَا۠ بِهِۦ زَعِيمٞ ٧٢
72. They said: We miss the king´s drinking cup, and he who shall bring it shall have a camel-load and I am responsible for it.
يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓاْ أَوۡفُواْ بِٱلۡعُقُودِۚ أُحِلَّتۡ لَكُم بَهِيمَةُ ٱلۡأَنۡعَٰمِ إِلَّا مَا يُتۡلَىٰ عَلَيۡكُمۡ غَيۡرَ مُحِلِّي ٱلصَّيۡدِ وَأَنتُمۡ حُرُمٌۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَحۡكُمُ مَا يُرِيدُ ١
1. O you who believe! fulfill the obligations. The cattle quadrupeds are allowed to you except that which is recited to you, not violating the prohibition against game when you are entering upon the performance of the pilgrimage; surely Allah orders what He desires.
There is also proof in the Hadith of those who healed someone through reciting of Surat al- Fatihah on a flock of sheep which was approved by the Prophet (SAW). The proofs for these types of services are traceable to the Hadith of Abu Huraira reported by Tirmidhi ” that Allah told the Prophet,: I am the third party to two contracting parties so long as no one deceives the other, whenever one party deceives the other, I forsake them. These types of transactions existed in the Jāhiliyyah era but later allowed by the prophet and evidences are available for most of them in the Qur’an and Hadith and in the dealings of the companions and the successors.
According to Sayyid Sabiq, there is no verse in the Qur’an that legalizes slavery as there is no information from the Hadith, the Prophet set the people of Makkah free at the eve of its conquest likewise the captives of Banū Mustaliq, Hunain and all the slaves he possessed before Islam and those slaves that were given to him as gifts were all set free. Though, it was reported that his successors enslaved some captives of war based on retaliation as there is no verse prohibiting that, slavery was not permitted generally. Sayyid Sabiq, (2004).
Moreover, those that were in possession of slaves were advised to give their slaves fair treatment as can be seen in Q4:36.
۞وَٱعۡبُدُواْ ٱللَّهَ وَلَا تُشۡرِكُواْ بِهِۦ شَيۡٔٗاۖ وَبِٱلۡوَٰلِدَيۡنِ إِحۡسَٰنٗا وَبِذِي ٱلۡقُرۡبَىٰ وَٱلۡيَتَٰمَىٰ وَٱلۡمَسَٰكِينِ وَٱلۡجَارِ ذِي ٱلۡقُرۡبَىٰ وَٱلۡجَارِ ٱلۡجُنُبِ وَٱلصَّاحِبِ بِٱلۡجَنۢبِ وَٱبۡنِ ٱلسَّبِيلِ وَمَا مَلَكَتۡ أَيۡمَٰنُكُمۡۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَا يُحِبُّ مَن كَانَ مُخۡتَالٗا فَخُورًا ٣٦
36. And serve Allah and do not associate any thing with Him and be good to the parents and to the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the neighbor of (your) kin and the alien neighbor, and the companion in a journey and the wayfarer and those whom your right hands possess; surely Allah does not love him who is proud, boastful;
They were ordered not to despise them by saying “my slave” but they should be called by their names. They should be clothed with same clothes with their master’s and be fed with the same type of food, no injustice should be meted on them, they should be trained and given good education, they should be assisted to gain their freedom. Penalty of some major sins include setting slave free such as killing someone by mistake, non- fulfilment of a vow and whosoever promises to set his slave free must do so and must not rescind. Ibn Rushd, (nd).
In Sharīach, a slave may take his master to court if he is maltreated and for that, the court may force him to free the slave. If anyone beats his slave mercilessly, the punishment for that is to set him free and if the master kills his slave intentionally, he would also be killed unless it happened by mistake.
Conclusions
The paper has highlighted some of the important sources of contractual labour services in Islamic Law and the areas it covers. The labour services in Islamic Law, taken from the Qur’an, Hadith and the opinions of Muslim Jurists have undergone a lot of development and evaluation over the years. The values and ethics of these labour contracts have guaranteed safety for both the employer and the employee through the rule, regulation and various conditions attached to its execution. It had guaranteed economic growth for many generations as it is doing today in the places where it has been put to practice. It is believed that it could also create employment for millions of people globally based on adhering to the letters and spirits of these values and ethics.
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